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DWYER, CLERK\n U.S. COURT OF APPEALS\nJ. DOE, 1 and J. DOE, 2-5, individually and No. 24-7700\non behalf of all others similarly situated,\n D.C. No.\n 4:22-cv-06823-JST\n Plaintiffs - Appellants,\n Northern District of California,\n v. Oakland\nGITHUB, INC., a Delaware corporation; et MANDATE FILED\nal., Oct 08 2026\n\n\n Defendants - Appellees. CLERK, U.S. DISTRICT COURT\n NORTHERN DISTRICT OF CALIFORNIA\n SAN FRANCISCO\n\n\n The judgment of this Court, entered September 16, 2026, takes effect this\n\ndate.\n\n This constitutes the formal mandate of this Court issued pursuant to\n\nRule 41(a) of the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure.\n\n\n\n FOR THE COURT:\n\n MOLLY C. 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Case Number 24-6136 Ninth Circuit (dhm, COURT STAFF) (Filed on 10/8/2026) (Entered: 10/08/2026)","tags":[]},{"resource_uri":"https://www.courtlistener.com/api/rest/v4/docket-entries/478272170/","id":478272170,"docket":"https://www.courtlistener.com/api/rest/v4/dockets/65669506/","recap_documents":[{"resource_uri":"https://www.courtlistener.com/api/rest/v4/recap-documents/493893707/","id":493893707,"tags":[],"absolute_url":"/docket/65669506/296/doe-1-v-github-inc/","date_created":"2026-09-16T14:35:21.112731-07:00","date_modified":"2026-09-29T06:34:58.676453-07:00","sha1":"fd54ffe695379df84f5b8ae326bb06d98df0ddf6","page_count":18,"file_size":225247,"filepath_local":"recap/gov.uscourts.cand.403220/gov.uscourts.cand.403220.296.0.pdf","filepath_ia":"https://archive.org/download/gov.uscourts.cand.403220/gov.uscourts.cand.403220.296.0.pdf","ia_upload_failure_count":null,"thumbnail":"recap-thumbnails/gov.uscourts.cand.403220/493893707.thumb.1068.png","thumbnail_status":1,"plain_text":"Case 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 1 of 18\n\n\n\n\n FOR PUBLICATION\n\n UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS\n FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT\n\n J. DOE, 1; J. DOE, 2-5, individually No. 24-7700\n and on behalf of all others similarly\n D.C. No.\n situated,\n 4:22-cv-06823-\n JST\n Plaintiffs - Appellants,\n\n v. OPINION\n\n GITHUB, INC., a Delaware\n corporation; MICROSOFT\n CORPORATION, a Washington\n corporation; OPENAI, INC., a\n Delaware nonprofit corporation;\n OPENAI, LP, a Delaware limited\n partnership; OPENAI GP, LLC, a\n Delaware limited liability company;\n OPENAI STARTUP FUND GP I,\n LLC, a Delaware limited liability\n company; OPENAI STARTUP\n FUND I, LP, a Delaware limited\n partnership; OPENAI STARTUP\n FUND MANAGEMENT, LLC, a\n Delaware limited liability company;\n OPENAI OPCO, LLC; OPENAI,\n LLC; OPENAI GLOBAL, LLC; OAI\n CORPORATION; OPENAI\n HOLDINGS, LLC; OPENAI\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 2 of 18\n 2 DOE V. GITHUB, INC.\n\n\n HOLDCO, LLC; OPENAI\n INVESTMENT; OPENAI\n STARTUP FUND SPV I, LP;\n OPENAI STARTUP FUND SPV GP\n I, LLC,\n\n Defendants - Appellees.\n\n Appeal from the United States District Court\n for the Northern District of California\n Jon S. Tigar, District Judge, Presiding\n\n Argued and Submitted February 11, 2026\n San Francisco, California\n\n Filed September 16, 2026\n\n Before: Sidney R. Thomas and Eric D. Miller, Circuit\n Judges, and Stanley Blumenfeld, Jr., District Judge.*\n\n Opinion by Judge Miller\n\n\n\n\n *\n The Honorable Stanley Blumenfeld, Jr., United States District Judge\n for the Central District of California, sitting by designation.\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 3 of 18\n DOE V. GITHUB, INC. 3\n\n\n SUMMARY**\n\n\n Digital Millennium Copyright Act\n\n In an interlocutory appeal pursuant to 28 U.S.C.\n \u00a7 1292(b), the panel affirmed the district court\u2019s dismissal of\n part of an action brought under the Digital Millennium\n Copyright Act (\u201cDMCA\u201d) by programmers against GitHub,\n Inc., and other defendants.\n GitHub is a platform that allows developers to store,\n manage, and share their code. GitHub Copilot and Codex\n are tools that help programmers write code using artificial\n intelligence\u2014specifically, large language models that were\n trained on millions of software projects on GitHub.\n Plaintiffs alleged that Copilot and Codex reproduced their\n code without attribution in violation of 18 U.S.C. \u00a7 1202(b),\n a provision of the DMCA.\n The panel concluded that plaintiffs had Article III\n standing to bring their DMCA claim because they plausibly\n alleged a substantial risk of injury.\n The panel nonetheless held that plaintiffs did not state a\n claim under the DMCA because their allegations under an\n \u201coutput\u201d theory showed that Copilot and Codex do not\n \u201cremove or alter\u201d copyright management information from\n a copy of an existing protected work but instead create new\n works that never contained that information.\n\n\n\n\n **\n This summary constitutes no part of the opinion of the court. It has\n been prepared by court staff for the convenience of the reader.\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 4 of 18\n 4 DOE V. GITHUB, INC.\n\n\n The panel declined to consider, as forfeited, plaintiffs\u2019\n \u201cinput\u201d theory of DMCA liability.\n\n\n\n COUNSEL\n\n Jesse Panuccio (argued), Daniel Morales, and Evan M.\n Ezray, Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, Fort Lauderdale, Florida;\n Joshua M. Stein, Maxwell V. Pritt, and Margaux\n Poueymirou, Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, San Francisco,\n California; Matthew Butterick, Butterick Law PC, Los\n Angeles, California; Joseph R. Saveri, Christopher K.L.\n Young, William W.C. Guardado, and Evan Creutz, Saveri\n Law Firm LLP, San Francisco, California; for Plaintiffs-\n Appellants.\n Lisa S. Blatt (argued), Erin M. Sielaff, Claire R. Cahill,\n Thomas G. Hentoff, and Claire L. Lazar, Williams &\n Connolly LLP, Washington, D.C.; Christopher J. Cariello\n (argued), Orrick Herrington & Sutcliffe LLP, New York,\n New York; Alyssa M. Caridis, and Geoffrey C. Shaw, Orrick\n Herrington & Sutcliffe LLP, Los Angeles, California; Jonas\n Q. Wang, Orrick Herrington & Sutcliffe LLP, Washington,\n D.C.; Nicholas Gonzalez and Annette L. Hurst, Orrick\n Herrington & Sutcliffe LLP, San Francisco, California;\n Aileen McGrath, Joseph C. Gratz, and Tiffany Cheung,\n Morrison & Foerster LLP, San Francisco, California; John\n R. Lanham, Morrison & Foerster LLP, San Diego,\n California; for Defendants-Appellees.\n Brian Scarpelli and Priya Nair, ACT The App Association,\n Washington, D.C., for Amicus Curiae ACT The App\n Association.\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 5 of 18\n DOE V. GITHUB, INC. 5\n\n\n Paul N. Harold, Wilson Sonsini Goodrich & Rosati PC,\n Washington, D.C., for Amici Curiae Chamber of Progress\n and Computer & Communications Industry Association.\n Robert W. Clarida, Reitler Kailas & Rosenblatt LLP, New\n York, New York, for Amici Curiae The Authors Guild Inc.,\n The Association of American Publishers, The News/Media\n Alliance, and The International Association of Scientific\n Technical and Medical Publishers.\n Corynne McSherry and Victoria Noble, Electronic Frontier\n Foundation, San Francisco, California, for Amici Curiae\n Electronic Frontier Foundation and Public Knowledge.\n Christopher Bavitz, Cyberlaw Clinic, Harvard Law School,\n Cambridge, Massachusetts, for Amicus Curiae Authors\n Alliance.\n Jennifer M. Urban and Erik Stallman, Samuelson Law\n Technology & Public Policy Clinic, University of California\n at Berkeley School of Law, Berkeley, California, for Amici\n Curiae Intellectual Property Law Professors.\n\n\n\n OPINION\n\n MILLER, Circuit Judge:\n\n GitHub is a platform that allows developers to store,\n manage, and share their code. GitHub Copilot (Copilot) and\n Codex are tools that help programmers write code using\n artificial intelligence\u2014specifically, large language models\n that were trained on millions of software projects on GitHub.\n Plaintiffs are programmers who published open-source code\n on GitHub. They believe that Copilot and Codex may\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 6 of 18\n 6 DOE V. GITHUB, INC.\n\n\n reproduce their code without attribution and allege that, were\n that to happen, it would violate 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 1202(b), enacted\n as part of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA),\n Pub. L. No. 105-304, \u00a7 103, 112 Stat. 2860, 2872 (1998).\n Plaintiffs brought this action under the DMCA, and the\n district court dismissed plaintiffs\u2019 DMCA claims. We agree\n with the district court that plaintiffs do not state a claim\n under the DMCA because their allegations show that Copilot\n and Codex do not \u201cremove or alter\u201d copyright management\n information (CMI) from a copy of an existing protected\n work but instead create new works that never contained that\n information. See 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 1202(b)(1). We therefore\n affirm.\n I\n Microsoft owns and operates GitHub, which is the\n world\u2019s largest hosting service for open-source software\u2014\n that is, software whose creators choose to make its source\n code publicly available. Much of the code in public\n repositories on GitHub is made available under open-source\n licenses that permit other developers to use or modify that\n code subject to certain conditions. One of the most common\n conditions is attribution, meaning that a copy of the\n license\u2014including the author\u2019s name and copyright\n notice\u2014must be included with any copy or derivative of the\n code.\n Microsoft is also a major investor in OpenAI, a company\n that develops and sells artificial intelligence models. One of\n OpenAI\u2019s projects is Codex, a generative AI tool that works\n autonomously to draft code based on a programmer\u2019s\n prompts. Copilot is a paid subscription service jointly\n developed by GitHub and OpenAI that uses a modified\n version of Codex to produce blocks of code in response to a\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 7 of 18\n DOE V. GITHUB, INC. 7\n\n\n user\u2019s prompts. In all respects relevant to this case, Codex\n and Copilot function similarly, so for simplicity, we will\n refer solely to Copilot.\n As described in the complaint, Copilot is a large\n language model that works by identifying statistical patterns\n in the structure of code. The model relies on those patterns\n to identify the \u201cmost statistically likely completion, based on\n the examples it reviewed in training,\u201d to a particular prompt\n or snippet of code. To identify relevant statistical patterns,\n Copilot was trained on billions of lines of publicly available\n code, including code from \u201call available public GitHub\n repositories.\u201d\n Plaintiffs are programmers who have published\n copyrighted code, subject to various licenses, on public\n GitHub repositories. They brought this putative class action\n against GitHub, Microsoft, and OpenAI in the Northern\n District of California. After two rounds of dismissals and\n amendments, the complaint has been whittled down to three\n claims: one claim under the DMCA and two claims for\n breach of contract.\n Plaintiffs\u2019 DMCA claim rests on their allegation that\n Copilot will sometimes produce \u201cidentical copies of code\n Copilot was trained on,\u201d a possibility that \u201cis only increasing\n as the model scales.\u201d The operative complaint includes\n examples of cases in which Copilot reproduced \u201cessentially\n verbatim\u201d copies of code written by the proposed class\n representatives. Plaintiffs allege that when Copilot\n reproduces code from its training materials, it does not\n include the attribution, copyright notices, or other license\n terms that were included with the code when it was\n published on GitHub. Plaintiffs claim that this omission\n violates section 1202(b) of the DMCA.\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 8 of 18\n 8 DOE V. GITHUB, INC.\n\n\n \u201cIn enacting the DMCA, Congress sought to mitigate the\n problems presented by copyright enforcement in the digital\n age.\u201d MDY Indus., LLC v. Blizzard Ent., Inc., 629 F.3d 928,\n 942 (9th Cir. 2010) (citing Universal City Studios, Inc. v.\n Corley, 273 F.3d 429, 440 (2d Cir. 2001)). As relevant here,\n section 1202 makes it unlawful to (1) \u201cintentionally remove\n or alter any [CMI],\u201d (2) \u201cdistribute or import for distribution\n [CMI] knowing that the [CMI] has been removed or altered\n without authority of the copyright owner or the law,\u201d or\n (3) \u201cdistribute, import for distribution, or publicly perform\n works, copies of works, or phonorecords, knowing that\n [CMI] has been removed or altered without authority of the\n copyright owner or the law.\u201d 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 1202(b). The\n DMCA defines CMI as certain \u201cinformation conveyed in\n connection with copies . . . of a work,\u201d including \u201c[t]he title\n and other information identifying the work, including the\n information set forth on a notice of copyright,\u201d \u201c[t]he name\n of, and other identifying information about, the author\u201d or\n \u201cthe copyright owner of the work,\u201d and the \u201c[t]erms and\n conditions for use of the work.\u201d Id. \u00a7 1202(c). The DMCA\n does not require works to include CMI or prescribe the\n particular types of CMI that may be used. But if a work does\n contain CMI, section 1202(b) protects that CMI from\n deliberate removal or alteration.\n The district court dismissed the DMCA claim under\n Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6), first with leave to\n amend, and then with prejudice. The court reasoned \u201cthat\n Section 1202(b) claims require that copies be \u2018identical.\u2019\u201d It\n emphasized plaintiffs\u2019 allegations that Copilot\u2019s output is\n often a \u201cnear-identical copy\u201d or \u201cmodified copy\u201d of code on\n GitHub, explaining that the complaint\u2019s examples all\n involved instances in which \u201cthe Copilot output is a\n \u2018modified format,\u2019 \u2018variation[],\u2019 or the \u2018functional[]\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 9 of 18\n DOE V. GITHUB, INC. 9\n\n\n equivalent\u2019 of the licensed code.\u201d The court concluded that\n those allegations were not sufficient to state a claim under\n the DMCA because plaintiffs\u2019 code and Copilot\u2019s output\n \u201cwere not identical.\u201d The court denied a motion to dismiss\n the contract claims, which remain pending.\n The district court certified its order dismissing the\n section 1202(b) claims for interlocutory appeal under 28\n U.S.C. \u00a7 1292(b). The court held that \u201cwhether Sections\n 1202(b)(1) and (b)(3) of the DMCA impose an identicality\n requirement\u201d is a controlling question of law on which there\n is substantial ground for difference of opinion.\n We review de novo the district court\u2019s grant of a motion\n to dismiss. Wells Fargo Bank, N.A. v. Mahogany Meadows\n Ave. Tr., 979 F.3d 1209, 1213 (9th Cir. 2020). \u201cTo survive a\n motion to dismiss, a complaint must contain sufficient\n factual matter, accepted as true, to \u2018state a claim to relief that\n is plausible on its face.\u2019\u201d Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662,\n 678 (2009) (quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S.\n 544, 570 (2007)).\n II\n Plaintiffs have articulated two different theories of\n DMCA violations. The first, which we will call the \u201cinput\u201d\n theory, is that defendants violated section 1202(b)(1) at the\n training stage by removing CMI from putative class\n members\u2019 code before feeding the stripped code into Copilot\n as training data. The second, which we will call the \u201coutput\u201d\n theory, is that Copilot sometimes returns memorized training\n data as output to users without including the source code\u2019s\n CMI, and that in doing so Copilot \u201cremove[s]\u201d or \u201calter[s]\u201d\n CMI on copies of plaintiffs\u2019 protected work, in violation of\n section 1202(b)(1) and (3).\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 10 of 1\n 10 DOE V. GITHUB, INC.\n\n\n We decline to consider the input theory because\n plaintiffs forfeited it. Read in isolation, the complaint might\n be understood to assert such a theory. For example, the\n complaint alleges that \u201cDefendants removed or altered CMI\n from open-source code that is owned by Class members after\n the code was uploaded to a GitHub repository by\n incorporating it into Copilot with its CMI removed.\u201d But\n although plaintiffs at times gestured toward an input theory,\n the district court made clear that it did not understand\n plaintiffs to have asserted a claim based on that theory. At\n the hearing on defendants\u2019 first motion to dismiss, the court\n asked whether the act of copying training data into Copilot\n violated the attribution requirement of open-source licenses,\n and plaintiffs\u2019 counsel answered, \u201cPerhaps it doesn\u2019t.\u201d The\n court then observed that the \u201ccomplaint is not about training.\n It just isn\u2019t.\u201d And in the district court\u2019s subsequent order\n granting in part defendants\u2019 motion to dismiss plaintiffs\u2019 first\n complaint, the court stated unequivocally: \u201cPlaintiffs do not\n allege they were injured by Defendants\u2019 use of licensed code\n as training data.\u201d\n If plaintiffs believed that the district court misunderstood\n their position, it was incumbent upon them to say so. But\n plaintiffs did not do so, either orally or in writing. In arguing\n that they preserved an input theory, plaintiffs point only to\n their statement that \u201c[t]he DMCA makes the mere removal\n of CMI from digital copies illegal before distribution of\n copies\u201d and to one of OpenAI\u2019s filings, in which OpenAI\n purportedly acknowledged that plaintiffs advanced a claim\n based on \u201cthe pre-distribution removal of CMI.\u201d Plaintiffs\u2019\n statement was part of their explanation of the distinction\n between section 1202(b)(1) and section 1202(b)(3) and did\n not suggest disagreement with the district court\u2019s conclusion\n that the complaint did not advance an input theory. And the\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 11 of 1\n DOE V. GITHUB, INC. 11\n\n\n cited OpenAI filing argued that plaintiffs\u2019 second amended\n complaint \u201cadmits that no pre-distribution [CMI] removal\n occurred\u201d and does not allege any claim based on a pre-\n distribution removal theory. Plaintiffs have identified\n nothing in their district court briefing after the first motion\n to dismiss that would have put the court on notice that they\n wished to pursue an input theory. We therefore conclude that\n plaintiffs forfeited the theory.\n III\n As to the output theory, defendants argue that plaintiffs\n lack standing because they did not adequately allege that\n their code will be subject to copying by Copilot without\n reproduction of the accompanying CMI. The district court\n did not address standing in its order granting the motion to\n dismiss, and the question certified for appeal does not\n discuss standing. But our jurisdiction under section 1292(b)\n \u201capplies to the order certified to the court of appeals, and is\n not tied to the particular question formulated by the district\n court.\u201d Yamaha Motor Corp., U.S.A. v. Calhoun, 516 U.S.\n 199, 205 (1996). We therefore \u201cmay address any issue fairly\n included within the certified order.\u201d Id. That includes the\n question of standing. Although that question was \u201cnot\n expressly certified,\u201d the district court had addressed it in an\n earlier order, and it is \u201cfairly raised by the order under\n review.\u201d Lee v. American Nat\u2019l Ins. Co., 260 F.3d 997, 1001\n (9th Cir. 2001).\n To establish Article III standing, a plaintiff must show,\n among other things, that it faces an injury in fact\u2014that is,\n \u201can invasion of a legally protected interest which is\n (a) concrete and particularized and (b) actual or imminent,\n not conjectural or hypothetical.\u201d Lujan v. Defenders of\n Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555, 560 (1992) (citation, internal\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 12 of 1\n 12 DOE V. GITHUB, INC.\n\n\n quotation marks, and footnote omitted). \u201cAn allegation of\n future injury\u201d can establish standing if \u201cthere is a substantial\n risk that the harm will occur.\u201d Susan B. Anthony List v.\n Driehaus, 573 U.S. 149, 158 (2014) (citation and internal\n quotation marks omitted). Allegations of standing \u201cmust be\n supported in the same way as any other matter on which the\n plaintiff bears the burden of proof, i.e., with the manner and\n degree of evidence required at the successive stages of the\n litigation.\u201d Lujan, 504 U.S. at 561. \u201cAt the pleading stage,\n general factual allegations of injury resulting from the\n defendant\u2019s conduct may suffice\u201d because courts must\n \u201cpresum[e] that general allegations embrace those specific\n facts that are necessary to support the claim.\u201d Id. (quoting\n Lujan v. National Wildlife Fed\u2019n, 497 U.S. 871, 889 (1990)).\n According to defendants, even if Copilot makes copies\n of code without CMI, the risk that it will reproduce\n plaintiffs\u2019 code\u2014rather than the code of some other GitHub\n contributor\u2014is \u201cno more than conjecture.\u201d City of Los\n Angeles v. Lyons, 461 U.S. 95, 108 (1983). We disagree. The\n complaint alleges a substantial risk of injury because it states\n that \u201cCopilot reproduces the code of the Named Plaintiffs\n without attribution,\u201d \u201cthat many if not all prompts entered\n into Copilot will readily cause it to emit verbatim, near-\n verbatim, or modified copies of Licensed Material that\n violate the licenses under which the source code is\n published,\u201d that \u201c[i]t is therefore likely if not certain that\n verbatim, near-verbatim or modified copies of each\n Plaintiff[\u2019s] code have already been emitted by Copilot,\u201d and\n that \u201ceach day these violations must be accruing with\n astonishing frequency.\u201d\n Of course, a complaint must \u201ccontain sufficient factual\n matter\u201d to make the stated allegations plausible. Iqbal, 556\n U.S. at 678. But the complaint here meets that standard. The\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 13 of 1\n DOE V. GITHUB, INC. 13\n\n\n complaint cites academic research finding that large\n language models will sometimes \u201cemit the memorized\n training data verbatim,\u201d a phenomenon that \u201cwill likely get\n worse as models continue[] to scale.\u201d The complaint notes\n that GitHub has implemented a duplicate-detection feature\n that allows users to block output suggestions matching\n public code\u2014specifically, verbatim snippets of 150\n characters or more\u2014which is some evidence that Copilot\n can and does emit literally identical copies of code. And the\n complaint also provides examples of cases in which Copilot\n reproduced portions of the named plaintiffs\u2019 code verbatim.\n If this case were to proceed to summary judgment,\n plaintiffs would need to present evidence sufficient to create\n a genuine factual issue as to whether they face a \u201csubstantial\n risk\u201d of harm. Susan B. Anthony List, 573 U.S. at 158. We\n need not determine whether the evidence referred to in the\n complaint would be sufficient to meet that standard. But the\n factual allegations in the complaint make it plausible that\n plaintiffs face a substantial risk, and that is enough to survive\n a motion to dismiss.\n IV\n Turning to the merits of the output theory, we agree with\n the district court that the complaint does not state a claim\n under the DMCA. The complaint describes an AI tool that\n does not look up and reproduce stored work but rather\n creates new work. That new work may or may not infringe\n plaintiffs\u2019 copyrights in their code, but it cannot reasonably\n be described as a copy of that code from which CMI has been\n \u201cremoved\u201d or \u201caltered.\u201d\n \u201c[W]e start where we always do: with the text of the\n statute.\u201d Van Buren v. United States, 593 U.S. 374, 381\n (2021). Section 1202(b) provides that \u201c[n]o person shall,\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 14 of 1\n 14 DOE V. GITHUB, INC.\n\n\n without the authority of the copyright owner or the law,\u201d\n \u201cintentionally remove or alter any copyright management\n information\u201d or \u201cdistribute . . . works [or] copies of works,\n . . . knowing that copyright management information has\n been removed or altered without authority of the copyright\n owner or the law.\u201d 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 1202(b)(1), (3). The verb\n \u201cremove\u201d means \u201cto get rid of,\u201d while \u201calter\u201d means \u201cto\n cause to become different in some particular characteristic.\u201d\n Webster\u2019s Third New International Dictionary 63, 1921\n (1993). In context, both verbs imply taking an affirmative\n act with respect to CMI connected to a work that already\n exists. See, e.g., 4 Nimmer on Copyright \u00a7 12A.10[B][1][a]\n (2026) (citing \u201cdefacing . . . the title page of a book\u201d or\n \u201cdelet[ing] the electronic information that may accompany a\n computer file\u201d as paradigmatic section 1202(b) violations).\n One who creates a new work and fails to include CMI cannot\n be said to have \u201cremoved\u201d or \u201caltered\u201d anything. See\n Falkner v. General Motors LLC, 393 F. Supp. 3d 927, 938\n (C.D. Cal. 2018) (explaining that mere \u201cfailure to include\u201d\n CMI does not \u201cconstitute[] removal or alteration\u201d of CMI);\n accord Kipp Flores Architects, LLC v. AMH Creekside Dev.,\n LLC, No. 23-50750, 2026 WL 2453096, at *13\u201317 (5th Cir.\n Aug. 21, 2026) (opinion of Willett, J.). Instead, removal or\n alteration requires taking away or changing attribution\n information from an existing work.\n The statutory definition of CMI reinforces this reading.\n CMI is \u201cinformation conveyed in connection with copies . . .\n of a work,\u201d not in connection with excerpts or derivative\n works. 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 1202(c) (emphasis added). A \u201ccopy\u201d of\n a work is a \u201cmaterial object[] . . . in which a work is fixed,\u201d\n id. \u00a7 101, so CMI is information that exists in connection\n with those material objects. Violating section 1202(b)\n requires removing or altering the CMI on those material\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 15 of 1\n DOE V. GITHUB, INC. 15\n\n\n objects, such as by reprinting an image while cropping out\n the \u201cprinted gutter credit near the [i]mage\u201d identifying the\n photographer. Murphy v. Millennium Radio Grp., 650 F.3d\n 295, 305 (3d Cir. 2011); see also Falkner, 393 F. Supp. 3d\n at 938\u201339 (photographer did not remove or alter CMI when\n he photographed a mural from an angle that rendered the\n artist\u2019s signature not visible). To state a claim under section\n 1202, plaintiffs must therefore allege that defendants\n removed or altered CMI from copies of existing protected\n works; merely alleging that a similar or derivative work does\n not include the CMI, without facts showing its removal or\n alteration, is insufficient.\n The district court and defendants characterize this\n principle as the DMCA\u2019s \u201cidenticality\u201d requirement. But\n \u201cidenticality\u201d is something of a misnomer because the\n DMCA does not require literal identicality between the\n plaintiff\u2019s work and the allegedly infringing work. The\n concept of \u201cidenticality\u201d is best understood as a gloss on the\n statutory terms \u201cremove,\u201d \u201calter,\u201d and \u201ccopies\u201d rather than\n an independent (and atextual) element of a section 1202(b)\n claim.\n To the extent identicality is relevant, it is because one\n way to determine whether CMI has been \u201cremove[d]\u201d from\n a copyrighted work is to compare the allegedly infringing\n copy with the original. If the two works are otherwise\n identical\u2014sharing, for example, the same composition,\n cropping, or other distinctive features\u2014but the allegedly\n infringing version omits the CMI that accompanied the\n original, a factfinder may reasonably infer that the defendant\n removed CMI from the copied work. We relied on just such\n a comparison in Friedman v. Live Nation Merchandise, Inc.,\n where we held that because the allegedly infringing\n photographs were \u201cexact copies\u201d of the images as they\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 16 of 1\n 16 DOE V. GITHUB, INC.\n\n\n appeared in the copyright owner\u2019s book, and \u201c[b]ecause the\n only material difference\u201d in the allegedly infringing versions\n \u201cwas that the CMI was missing, it was necessarily the case\n that the CMI had been removed on the copied version.\u201d 833\n F.3d 1180, 1188 (9th Cir. 2016). Although substantial\n reproduction of a plaintiff\u2019s existing work without CMI is\n not always dispositive, it will often be strong circumstantial\n evidence that the defendant removed CMI from a copy of the\n plaintiff\u2019s work. On the other hand, material differences\n between the works may suggest that the defendant instead\n created a new, derivative work to which the plaintiff\u2019s CMI\n was never attached and from which the defendant could not\n have \u201cremoved\u201d or \u201caltered\u201d CMI.\n Plaintiffs observe that requiring literal identicality would\n make it easy to circumvent the DMCA: So long as the\n defendant changed one word on one page of a book, in\n addition to deleting the CMI, that person would avoid\n violating section 1202(b) because the original and allegedly\n infringing versions would not be identical. But as defendants\n concede, the two works need not be literally identical to\n support an inference that CMI has been removed. See Real\n World Media LLC v. Daily Caller, Inc., 744 F. Supp. 3d 24,\n 40 (D.D.C. 2024) (\u201c[I]t would be odd if a defendant could\n evade DMCA liability by removing or altering CMI in a\n copied work but only disseminating 99% rather than 100%\n of that work.\u201d). Minor cosmetic changes will not necessarily\n protect a defendant who substantially or entirely reproduces\n the protected work and removes CMI. See New York Times\n Co. v. Microsoft Corp., 777 F. Supp. 3d 283, 317 (S.D.N.Y.\n 2025).\n But that concession does not help plaintiffs because they\n have not alleged removal of CMI from a copy of their work,\n even one with minor alterations. In reaching that conclusion,\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 17 of 1\n DOE V. GITHUB, INC. 17\n\n\n we recognize the limitation of relying on examples involving\n traditional print media, such as when a defendant has\n \u201cdefac[ed] . . . the title page of a book,\u201d 4 Nimmer on\n Copyright \u00a7 12A.10[B][1][a] (2026). While such examples\n may provide a useful starting point for reasoning by analogy,\n they do not map neatly onto the emerging digital\n technologies like artificial intelligence to which the\n DMCA\u2019s protections also apply. Even so, plaintiffs\u2019 own\n allegations about Copilot show that it is best understood as\n learning from existing works and then creating new works\n based on that learning process, not as making copies of\n existing works.\n According to the complaint, Copilot relies on a \u201ccomplex\n probabilistic process\u201d to predict \u201cthe most likely solution to\n a given prompt,\u201d based on \u201cthe solution it has found in the\n most projects\u201d answering similar questions. Sometimes,\n plaintiffs allege, that output may match snippets of \u201ccode\n from the training data.\u201d But their account of the algorithm\u2019s\n internal process\u2014inferring \u201cstatistical patterns governing\n the structure of code\u201d and identifying the most likely\n completion\u2014does not describe an action taken with respect\n to CMI attached to an existing work. Instead, it describes a\n process through which Copilot generates new works. In that\n respect, it differs from a traditional search engine, which, in\n response to a user\u2019s query, retrieves and displays stored\n information\u2014that is, copies of materials that already exist.\n If Copilot functioned like a search engine and produced\n outputs that were identical to plaintiffs\u2019 code but did not\n contain CMI, then plaintiffs might have a stronger claim that\n Copilot had removed their CMI. But that is not what\n plaintiffs have alleged.\n To be sure, Copilot\u2019s output may in some cases be\n substantially similar to existing code. As the district court\n\fCase 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 296 Filed 09/16/26 Page 18 of 1\n 18 DOE V. GITHUB, INC.\n\n\n observed, Copilot may produce \u201ca \u2018modified format,\u2019\n \u2018variation[],\u2019 or the \u2018functional[] equivalent\u2019 of the licensed\n code\u201d without the CMI. We express no view on whether that\n similarity would allow plaintiffs to assert a claim for\n copyright infringement. But we note that many copyright\n cases involve the creation of a work that is substantially\n similar to the plaintiff\u2019s without attribution. See Yonay v.\n Paramount Pictures Corp., 163 F.4th 685, 692 (9th Cir.\n 2026) (\u201cTo show unlawful appropriation,\u201d a plaintiff must\n show \u201cthat the works in question share \u2018substantial similarity\n in protectable expression.\u2019\u201d (emphasis omitted) (quoting\n Skidmore as Tr. for Randy Craig Wolfe Tr. v. Led Zeppelin,\n 952 F.3d 1051, 1064 (9th Cir. 2020) (en banc))). If that were\n all it took to violate section 1202(b), the DMCA would\n supplant traditional copyright protections and subject\n defendants to potentially ruinous liability under the\n DMCA\u2019s enhanced statutory damages. Compare 17 U.S.C.\n \u00a7 1203(c)(3) (permitting up to $25,000 per violation) with\n 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 504(c)(1) (capping traditional copyright\n statutory damages at $30,000 per work). We decline\n plaintiffs\u2019 invitation to transform run-of-the-mill copyright-\n infringement claims into DMCA claims.\n AFFIRMED.\n\f","ocr_status":2,"date_upload":"2026-09-16T16:00:30.123577-07:00","document_number":"296","attachment_number":null,"pacer_doc_id":"035027659222","is_available":true,"is_free_on_pacer":null,"is_sealed":null,"document_type":1,"description":"USCA Order","acms_document_guid":""}],"date_created":"2026-09-16T14:35:21.088216-07:00","date_modified":"2026-09-22T14:03:53.060874-07:00","date_filed":"2026-09-16","time_filed":"14:13:14","entry_number":296,"recap_sequence_number":"2026-09-16.001","pacer_sequence_number":1049,"description":"OPINION of USCA as to 286 USCA Case Number 24-7700. AFFIRMED. (jnk, COURT STAFF) (Filed on 9/16/2026) (Entered: 09/16/2026)","tags":[]},{"resource_uri":"https://www.courtlistener.com/api/rest/v4/docket-entries/464568569/","id":464568569,"docket":"https://www.courtlistener.com/api/rest/v4/dockets/65669506/","recap_documents":[{"resource_uri":"https://www.courtlistener.com/api/rest/v4/recap-documents/479746198/","id":479746198,"tags":[],"absolute_url":"/docket/65669506/295/doe-1-v-github-inc/","date_created":"2026-05-19T12:28:47.725495-07:00","date_modified":"2026-05-19T12:28:47.741870-07:00","sha1":"","page_count":null,"file_size":null,"filepath_local":null,"filepath_ia":"","ia_upload_failure_count":null,"thumbnail":null,"thumbnail_status":0,"plain_text":"","ocr_status":null,"date_upload":null,"document_number":"295","attachment_number":null,"pacer_doc_id":"","is_available":false,"is_free_on_pacer":null,"is_sealed":null,"document_type":1,"description":"","acms_document_guid":""}],"date_created":"2026-05-19T12:28:47.688929-07:00","date_modified":"2026-05-19T12:28:47.699417-07:00","date_filed":"2026-05-06","time_filed":null,"entry_number":295,"recap_sequence_number":"2026-05-06.001","pacer_sequence_number":null,"description":"NOTICE of Withdrawal filed by Alexandra Marie Ward, no longer appearing on behalf of OAI CORPORATION,, OPENAI GLOBAL, LLC, OPENAI HOLDCO, LLC, OPENAI HOLDINGS, LLC, OPENAI INVESTMENT, OPENAI INVESTMENT LLC, OPENAI STARTUP FUND SPV GP I, L.L.C., OPENAI STARTUP FUND SPV I, L.P, OPENAI, L.L.C., OpenAI GP, L.L.C., OpenAI OpCo, L.L.C., OpenAI Startup Fund GP I, L.L.C., OpenAI Startup Fund I, L.P., OpenAI Startup Fund Management, LLC, OpenAI, Inc., OpenAI, L.P. in this case (Ward, Alexandra) (Filed on 5/6/2026) (Entered: 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Case 4:22-cv-06823-JST Document 288 Filed 01/10/25 Page 1 of 1\nCAND TDOF (Rev. 07/2013)\n UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT\n NORTHERN DISTRICT OF CALIFORNIA\n TRANSCRIPT DESIGNATION FORM\n For appeals to the Ninth Circuit United States Court of Appeals; do not use for appeals to the Federal Circuit.\n 9th Cir. Court of Appeals Case No: District Court Case No(s)\n\n Short Case Title Notice of Appeal Date & District Court Docket No.\n\n\n Attorney or Pro Se Party Name: Address:\n\n\n Telephone: Email:\n\nINSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING THIS FORM:\nFor information about designating transcripts for an appeal before the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, refer to the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure,\nthe Ninth Circuit\u0092s Local Rules and the instructions below. If you have further questions, contact the Court Reporter Supervisor in the court division in\nwhich your case was filed (cand.uscourts.gov/courtreportercontact).\n 1. Designate transcripts. Open and read the Minutes document for each proceeding via the links on the ECF docket. To designate a particular\n proceeding\u0092s transcript as part of the record on appeal, enter in the table below: the hearing date, court reporter's name, hearing type and, if\n you are designating transcripts in multiple case numbers, the case number for this proceeding. One line per proceeding/transcript. If you need\n more space, complete and attach a second copy of this form. If you are not designating transcripts, proceed to item #4.\n 2. Identify transcripts already ordered. REVIEW the ECF docket sheet to determine which, if any, of the transcripts you have designated, are\n already e-filed. In the right column of the table, CHECK \u0093yes\u0094 and enter the docket number of each designated, e-filed transcript OR \u0093no\u0094 for\n each designated transcript that needs to be ordered. If all transcripts are e-filed, proceed to item #4.\n 3. Order transcripts. For any remaining designated transcripts that have not been e-filed, COMPLETE, separately for each court reporter, a CAND\n 435 Transcript Order (CJA counsel should instead complete CJA 24 forms and submit them to the CJA Unit). E-FILE each CAND 435 Transcript\n Order in the U.S. District Court case.\n IMPORTANT: Transcripts are not considered \u0093ordered\u0094 until you have (1) EITHER e-filed a CAND 435 Transcript Order for each court reporter OR\n submitted a CJA 24 form to the CJA Unit for each court reporter AND (2) made payment arrangements. Unless payment is by the U.S. government,\n payment arrangements may be deemed made on the date the court reporter receives your deposit check. Therefore, you should contact the court\n reporter immediately upon e-filing your CAND 435 Transcript Order to make payment arrangements. Please allow at least one week for making\n payment arrangements or processing your CJA 24 form to meet your Court of Appeals deadline for ordering transcripts.\n\n HEARING DATE: COURT REPORTER : HEARING TYPE: CASE No. TRANSCRIPT E-FILED? ECF Dkt #?\n\n Yes; Dkt #\n No; I have ordered or will order it.\n Yes; Dkt #\n No; I have ordered or will order it.\n Yes; Dkt #\n No; I have ordered or will order it.\n Yes; Dkt #\n No; I have ordered or will order it.\n Yes; Dkt #\n No; I have ordered or will order it.\n Yes; Dkt #\n No; I have ordered or will order it.\nIf you are submitting multiple pages, please complete the blanks at right: Page ___ of ___.\n 4. Certify and sign. Check ONE of the following and SIGN at the bottom.\n I do not intend to designate any portion of the transcript and will notify all counsel of this intention.\n All designated transcripts are already e-filed in the U.S. District Court case(s) at the docket numbers indicated above.\n As retained counsel (or litigant proceeding in pro per), I am ordering herewith by e-filing a CAND 435 Transcript Order Form the designated\n transcripts indicated above and I guarantee payment to the court reporter of the cost thereof.\n As appointed or Government counsel, I certify that I have submitted a CJA Form 24 or e-filed a CAND 435 Transcript Order Form and\n that payment arrangements have been made or will be made today authorizing preparation of the transcript at the expense of the United\n States. 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